All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage

By Armand L. Mauss

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 All Abraham's Children

Matters of race and ethnicity have been with us throughout the span ofrecorded history. I'm not aware of any time when the exclusionary impulsehas not been a part of the motivating rationale of clan and tribe.Determining who is "in" and who is "out" is often central to tribaldefinition, and as such merits the attention not just of anthropologists,but of sociologists and religionists as well.

Mauss, a sociologist by training, is also a Latter-day Saint, and thustakes a special interest in such matters within his own faith community.Indeed, the subtitle of the present work is "Changing Mormon Conceptions ofRace and Lineage." And Mauss, having studied this subject for manydecades, is in a unique position to pull together the research anddiscussions that have proliferated within Mormonism, especially in light ofan ongoing awareness of the weakness of its own historical positions.

"All Abraham's Children" focuses on Mormonism's relationship to three majorgroups: the Lamanites (racial descendants of the rebellious eldest son ofLehi in the Book of Mormon), the Jews, and those of "African lineage."Each study presents its own unique problems, as will be seen shortly.

Identifying racial attitudes within Mormonism can be a tricky enterprise.Because Mormonism accepts the idea of "continuing revelation" -- thecapacity to clarify or even change direction with a single commandment fromthe Lord -- it is not surprising that such attitudes will vary over aperiod of over 150 years. And when one considers the radical shifts inAmerican society during that period, with strong advances not only in racerelations but also in our understanding of the nature of revelation and theplace of historicity in the revelatory process, it is to be expected thatbeliefs and attitudes will change.

The larger question within Mormonism involves the degree to which socialmores and cultural demands impact the beliefs of a church based onrevelation. When, for example, the priesthood was opened to all worthymales in 1979, critics questioned whether the change was mandated by God,or by pressures brought on by society and the state, or perhaps acombination of both.

And here is where Mauss makes a remarkable contribution to ourunderstanding of these matters. Meticulously researched and, happily, toldin an interesting and compact way, Mauss brings us through the complex andsometimes contradictory world of the Mormon journey toward racialunderstanding. He studies not just the trends within the Church, but theintersection of those trends with the larger society. I believe it is onlyin this context that his subject can be understood.

Mauss begins his treatment with an interesting survey of American attitudestoward its indigenous Indian population. Theories of an Israelite originof the American Indians were not peculiar to Joseph Smith and the Book ofMormon. Such claims were common at the time; Joseph's ideas would not havebeen so unique.

What was different, however, was the esteem in which the Indians("Lamanites") were held among the Mormons. Indians were bound to betreated better by the Mormons than by others. And even though therelationship between the Indians and the Mormons was not always ideal, onbalance, Indians fared much better when united with the Mormons.

About half the book is dedicated to the subject of the "Lamanites." Heexplores the role of scholarship (and pseudo-scholarship) in formulatingthe "Lamanite identity," a vexing problem in Mormon circles. He likewiseshows the pendulum-like swings in Mormonism's attention to the question.It is a fascinating story.

Mauss follows with a two-chapter study of Mormonism's attitudes towardJews, its unique relationship with the Jewish people, and manifestations ofanti-semitism within the Mormon community. There is a focus on thepeculiar Mormon belief, taught early on but not much mentioned these days,that the blood of coverts to Mormonism undergoes a literal change -- onethat physically identifies them with the blood line of the tribe ofEphraim. In this day of DNA and advanced science, such a claim isdifficult to support. But it does provide a context for an understanding(in Mauss' words) of the "dual partnership and blood tie" between Mormonsand Jews.

The second chapter dealing with this subject is basically an historical andstatistical overview of Mormon attitudes toward Jews over the years. Itcontains interesting data and much food for thought.

Mauss then deals with the subject of Mormonism and people of color. Here"inspired assumptions" (see below) run rampant. The "curse of Cain" isdealt with in its own chapter, along with efforts to distance itself fromthe assumptions about black skin that have survived generations ofMormonism. How did the doctrine of "no priesthood for Negroes" develop?Did Joseph Smith himself subscribe to it? What were the results of theofficial declaration opening the priesthood to all worthy males? And howdid Mormonism confront the fluid civil rights issue in the U.S.? Maussanswers all these questions, and more.

Stylistically, Mauss begins each chapter with a series of citations fromauthoritative Mormon voices. In doing so, he illustrates how shiftingattitudes accompany shifting times. An example: heading up chapter 3,"From Lamanites to Indians" (page 41), are the following quotes. The firstis from Orson Pratt:

What says the Book of Mormon in relation to the building up of the New Jerusalem on this continent...? Does not that book say that the Lamanites are to be the principal operators in that important work, and that those who embrace the Gospel from among the Gentiles are to have the privilege of assisting the Lamanites to build up the city called the New Jerusalem?

The next (quoted in part) is from Bruce R. McConkie:

An occasional whiff of nonsense goes around the Church acclaiming that the Lamanites will build the temple in the New Jerusalem and that Ephraim and others will come to their assistance.

How does one account for such a clear discrepancy in the words of two menheld in very high regard in their Church's intellectual circles? Theycan't both be right. And, in fact, McConkie is downright dismissive whenreferring to an idea promoted by a respected thinker, albeit of a differentperiod.

And therein is a key to understanding Mauss' work. If one is searching fora single "Mormon attitude" toward any particular racial group, you simplywon't find it. The accepted view changes over the years. New thinkers,new prophets, alter not just attitudes, but the underlying "facts" thatinform those attitudes.

Consider for example, the Church's position concerning the "Lamanites."Given that no generally accepted view of Book of Mormon archaeology hasever been promulgated by the Church, and given that the Lamanites aredescribed as being descendants of some of the Book of Mormon peoples, itwould appear to be bit of a sticky thing to clearly identify any particularracial group as "Lamanite."

But despite general agreement on Book of Mormon archaeology, certainpeoples have been, at times, identified as "Lamanites," the AmericanIndians being a prominent example. In order to make the facts fit thetheory, some scholars have had to promulgate a view of where the Book ofMormon lands are. But nothing of certainty has come forth as of yet.

Absent particular revelation, Mormonism has nurtured a particular processthat I am calling "inspired assumption." It can be seen in ward meetings,Sunday schools, Institute classes, in fact, virtually anywhere the Saintsare gathered. Anecdotal evidence suggests that attitudes among the Mormonsare often defined by such "inspired assumptions." Lacking a trainedclergy, such gatherings are often fertile ground for baseless teachings andgiant leaps of understanding.

Mauss does a masterful job of pointing to the existence of assumptions as acontinuing problem in the Church. For example, note these brief excerptsfrom his chapter 9, "The Campaign to Cast Off the Curse of Cain":

It is not clear how much the lingering racial myths in the Mormon religious heritage affect missionary work or the congregational relationships between blacks and whites. (p. 261)

To repudiate any of the cherished religious lore of their immediate ancestors seems to some Mormons, especially the older ones, to be almost a repudiation of the grandparents themselves, to say nothing of their teachers, who might have walked with God. (p. 262)

Further reading in this, perhaps the best chapter in the book, studies theeffects of both religious, and family, legends in the perpetuation ofstereotypes and the sometimes-astonishing longevity of cherished, butwrong, beliefs.

At heart, Mauss is a sociologist. And so it should come as no surprisethat his focus throughout the work is on the interaction of society withChurch doctrine and practice. His conclusions may be a bit discomfiting tosome Latter-day Saints who have heretofore not studied out the issues ascarefully as has Mauss. And, to be sure, the temptation to make the booklarger and more complex must have been overwhelming. As a scholar and astudent, Mauss no doubt had a considerable body of data from which tochoose.

But his goal was to be understandable, not necessarily exhaustive. And heaccomplishes this very nicely. The non-scholar will find this bookreadable and intriguing; the scholar is given sufficient reference withwhich he or she may pursue any particular angle of study.

I'm very glad to have read this book. It is an important addition to thecorpus of writing concerning Mormonism and racial identity. It approachesits subject with objectivity and with courage. And readers will findherein a cogent and understandable study of a problem that continues to vexthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, written by one of theirown, from a standpoint of sound scholarship and deep respect.

I highly recommend this book. It's fully worth the cover price.